Full Text PDF Cite Share

The fifth International Negotiating Committee (INC-5) for the Global Plastics Treaty was held in Busan, South Korea, from November 25 to December 1, 2024. The treaty is the largest in scale among global efforts on environmental protection since the Paris Agreement in 2015, reflecting the rising global concerns about plastic pollution and demands for eco-friendly alternatives. In response, we aimed to identify the current state of plastic usage and its environmental impacts, discuss the strengths and limitations of eco-plastics, and suggest a direction for sustainable plastic management. In 2019, global plastic waste was estimated to reach 353 million tons, of which only 9% was recycled. Non-recycled plastics can cause a wide range of environmental pollution. Biodegradable eco-plastics could provide an alternative to conventional plastics, but there are practical limitations to achieving a better environment due to technical and regulatory constraints. Hence, international treaties such as INC should continue to seek global consensus for sustainable plastic management, while governments, industries, and individuals need to offer their best efforts within their respective capacities. For example, a goal of simplifying the plastic materials used in manufacturing products and ensuring the proper use of the term ‘eco-friendly’ may be achieved through collaboration between government and industry and along with additional efforts by individuals. First, government should establish specific and practical policies and regulations; second, industry should produce environmentally responsible products; and third, individuals should try to reduce their use of disposable items and adopt environmentally friendly consumption patterns. When these efforts come together, it becomes possible to reduce plastic consumption and improve recycling efficiency, ultimately leading to a ‘sustainable plastic world.’

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Southeast Asia faces severe air pollution challenges due to rapid urbanization, industrial activities, and seasonal biomass burning.
Objectives: This study provided a comprehensive understanding of air pollution control strategies in the Southeast Asia region by investigating air quality standards, ambient air quality levels, monitoring capabilities, and air pollution policies across Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member states.
Methods: Ambient air quality standards and information about monitoring stations were collected from government websites and governmental reports. Air pollution data, specifically PM2.5 concentrations, were collected from an open data source named IQAir.com. Air pollution policies were investigated via Google search and the most recently revised policies were incorporated into the findings of this study.
Results: The study found considerable disparities in monitoring networks among ASEAN member states, with national standards often less stringent than World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Open data sources revealed that PM2.5 levels in ASEAN member states consistently exceeded WHO guidelines, particularly in the dry season with widespread biomass burning. The policy review revealed that each ASEAN member state presented distinct policies tailored to its air pollution sources and air quality management strategies. These findings underscore the need for both national efforts and cross-border collaboration to effectively address the severe air pollution in the region.
Conclusions: This study could serve as a foundational resource for a deeper understanding of air pollution issues in ASEAN member states and for exploring more effective air pollution management strategies.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: People typically move around rather than remaining in a single microenvironment, leading to diverse activity patterns. Since PM_2.5 concentrations vary depending on these time-activity patterns, exposure assessment based on time-activity patterns is necessary.
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to assess exposure and contribution rates based on activity patterns according to time-activity patterns, aiming to identify behaviors associated with high exposure levels.
Methods: This study analyzed the weekday time-activity patterns of 1,718 respondents in Daegu using data from the 2019 Time-Use Survey by Statistics Korea. The respondents were clustered, and occupational groups were estimated by conducting a frequency analysis of sociodemographic factors. Location and behavior data were collected at 10-minute intervals, followed by exposure scenario construction and active simulations. When calculating the exposure and contribution rates of PM_2.5, the Korean exposure factors handbook was used to account for inhalation rates.
Results: Based on the results of exposure contribution assessment through active simulations, the average concentration by behavior was low for security work (4.99 μg/m³) and meals at school (5.05 μg/m³). In contrast, work at barbecue restaurants and meal preparation showed high concentrations of 350.46 μg/m³ and 54.74 μg/m³, respectively. The contribution rates were highest for barbecue restaurant work (68.75%), meal preparation (32.01%), manufacturing work (21.33%), drinking (16.62%), and eating at restaurants (15.22%). When exposure times were short but involved high-concentration sources, contribution rates increased.
Conclusions: Although exposure durations were short, work (barbecue restaurant) and meal preparation had the highest contribution rates due to high-concentration sources. When exposure times were short but involved high-concentration sources, contribution rates increased. Although cleaning was expected to have a high contribution rate, its impact was minimal. This study can help identify and prioritize behaviors for reducing PM_2.5 concentrations.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Managing indoor radon is important since it is a known carcinogen. Radon-blocking wallpaper can be a control measure for obstructing the penetration of the gas. Such wallpaper can be implemented in both new and existing buildings.
Objectives: The study aimed to evaluate the radon mitigation efficiency of radon blocking wallpaper under various conditions and assess its long-term effectiveness.
Methods: Radon concentrations in closed chambers were measured before and one month after the installation of radon-blocking wallpaper. Additionally, the impact of overlapping widths (single installation, 1, 5, and 10 cm) on blocking efficiency was tested in a closed chamber. In a simulated residential environment, radon concentrations were measured before, immediately upon, and six months after the installation of the radon-blocking wallpaper.
Results: In the one-month experiment, radon concentration in the chamber with radon-blocking wallpaper was found to be lower than in the chamber without it. Overlap tests revealed that overlapping widths did not affect radon mitigation effectiveness. In the simulated residential environment, radon concentrations showed a reduction after the installation of the radon-blocking wallpaper. Six months after installation, the monitoring confirmed that radon concentrations remained well below the indoor radon standard.
Conclusions: This study confirmed that radon-blocking wallpaper was an effective solution for reducing indoor radon concentrations. This study provided an important tool for radon management strategies in residential settings.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Solid waste incinerators (SWI) impact surrounding residents’ health, mental well-being, property values, and community image. Despite efforts by authorities to address conflicts, negative perceptions of SWI persist.
Objectives: This study aims to examine satisfaction with the surrounding environment and perceptions of SWI operation among residents at varying distances, providing data to improve public perceptions in the area.
Methods: The study focused on an region around a SWI divided into three areas based on distance in one direction: Area A (<0.5 km), Area B (0.5~3.0 km), and Area C (3.0~6.0 km). A survey of 1,400 residents (A=600, B=400, C=400) included questions on sociodemographic characteristics, environmental satisfaction, perception of the environmental, health, psychological, economic impact of the SWI, its operation, and information sources. Responses to each survey item were categorized by area and then frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were calculated. Chi-square test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Spearman’s correlation analysis were performed to compare significant regional differences in the survey results (SPSS 29.0.2.0).
Results: Satisfaction with the surrounding environment was lower in the area closer to the SWI. Residents of this area were more sensitive to air pollution and odors, perceiving the SWI as a source of psychological stress and economic hardship. Residents felt that the lack of information and insufficient efforts by local authorities increased distrust. A “Resident Support Committee” provided information to residents in the nearby area, while other residents relied on informal sources. Use of the city hall website was low in all areas.
Conclusions: This study suggests that the issue of residents’ perceptions regarding the operation of SWI needs to be addressed. Therefore, local authorities have to enhance transparency, regularly disclose updates on SWI operations, and establish communication systems to rebuild trust with residents. Efforts are also needed to more actively incorporate residents’ opinions and engage in various initiatives.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: There is no evaluation or management of environmental low-frequency noise and there are few studies on it, particularly in the area surrounding thermal power plants.
Objectives: This study aimed to conduct continuous measurement of low-frequency noise for 24 hours and cross-measurement from the thermal power plant site boundary line in order to understand the spatial distribution characteristics of low-frequency noise and evaluate it based on the low-frequency noise sound pressure level.
Methods: The low-frequency noise measurement was checked for excess in each frequency band by time at four sites over three consecutive times for 24 hours. Cross-measurements were made for 30 minutes at each of five sites by separation distance from the site boundary line of the thermal power plant. The measurement method was traced to the frequency exceeding nine octave bands (12.5 Hz to 80 Hz) according to the “Low Frequency Noise Guidelines” proposed by the Ministry of Environment. The Z characteristic (dB(Z)) was applied as well.
Results: As a result of the 24-hour continuous measurement, the sound pressure level for each frequency tended to decrease as the separation distance increased. As a result of cross-measurement, in the case of 80 Hz and 63 Hz, all five points exceeded the sound pressure level standard of the Ministry of Environment. In the case of 56 Hz and 40 Hz, the sound pressure level standard was exceeded at the thermal power plant boundary line and thermal power plant boundary line separation distance of 310 m.
Conclusions: In the area surrounding a low-frequency noise source, four frequencies (80 Hz, 63 Hz, 50 Hz, and 40 Hz) were found to have affected the residential area adjacent to the power plant. This study suggests a need for continuous monitoring of residential areas near thermal power plants for low-frequency noise and the establishment of environmental guidelines.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: PM_2.5 absorbs harmful chemicals and can lead to serious illnesses such as cancer, while heavy metals are known to be highly toxic. Compared to the general atmosphere, industrial complexes exhibit higher concentrations of heavy metals, necessitating health assessments for nearby residents. Busan, which has the highest number of industrial complexes in South Korea, is an area likely to display an impact on the health of local residents.
Objectives: This study aims to investigate the distribution of PM_2.5 and heavy metal concentrations in the areas surrounding the Sinpyeong and Jangrim industrial complexes and to assess the health risks among nearby residents, providing fundamental data for future environmental improvements in these industrial complexes.
Methods: Heavy metal concentrations in PM_2.5 were measured at five locations near the Sinpyeong and Jangrim industrial complexes in Busan. A concentration distribution analysis and a health risk assessment were conducted for five heavy metals (Ni, As, Cd, Cr⁶⁺, and Mn) based on toxicity information provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Results: The average PM_2.5 concentration at the five measurement locations ranged from 12.87 to 15.42 μg/m³, while the heavy metal concentrations were as follows: Ni 4.14 ng/m³, As 6.22 ng/m³, Cd 1.20 ng/m³, Cr⁶⁺ 0.81 ng/m³, and Mn 14.44 ng/m³. The cancer risk assessment indicated that at both exposure levels (CTE and RME) and across all measurement sites, the concentrations of As and Cr⁶⁺ exceeded the acceptable risk level (1.0E-06) established in this study.
Conclusions: This study analyzed the distribution characteristics of heavy metal concentrations by subdividing the areas near the Sinpyeong and Jangrim industrial complexes in Busan. It confirmed cancer risks associated with inhaling heavy metals through a health risk assessment. The significance of this study lies in identifying priority management targets for consideration when developing future measures to reduce heavy metal exposure.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: COVID19 changed the lives of people all over the world, including emissions and exposure to environmental pollutants.
Objectives: This study aimed to determine whether there was a difference between the concentration of air pollutants and the internal exposure levels of the South Korean general population before and after the outbreak of the COVID19 pandemic.
Methods: For the period from 2018 to 2020, when the Korean National Health and Environmental Survey (KoNEHS) Cycle 4 was conducted, 2018~2019 was classified as pre-COVID and 2020 as COVID, respectively. Air pollution data during this period were obtained from Air Korea (www.airkorea.or.kr). KoNEHS cycle 4 data were used as biomonitoring data to determine internal exposures.
Results: During the COVID period, the concentrations of particulate matter (18.0% for PM_2.5 and 18.4% for PM₁₀) significantly decreased compared to pre-COVID. Concentrations of volatile organic compounds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons also decreased, but not to a statistically significant degree. The concentrations of urinary mercury, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyfluorene, cadmium and 1-hydroxyryrene from KoNEHS data decreased significantly during the COVID period.
Conclusions: This study suggests that air pollution and internal exposure levels during COVID were lower than during the pre-COVID pandemic period. These findings indicate that lifestyle changes and reduced activities during the pandemic may have contributed to the observed decrease in environmental exposure.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: People spend 80~90% of their day indoors, with only 10~20% of their time spent outdoors. Evaluating exposure accurately requires assessments based on an individual’s time-activity pattern.
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the exposure and contribution rates of PM_2.5 by microenvironment, identify related exposure factors, and suggest management measures and priorities.
Methods: This study analyzed the time-activity patterns of 3,984 weekday respondents in Seoul using data from the 2014 Time-Use Survey by Statistics Korea. The respondents were clustered, and occupational groups were estimated by conducting a frequency analysis of sociodemographic factors. Location data was collected at 10-minute intervals, followed by exposure scenario construction and active simulations. When calculating the exposure and contribution rates of PM_2.5, the Korean exposure factors handbook was used to account for inhalation rates.
Results: Most of the indoor microenvironments where people spend their time are residential. Students spend the most time indoors at 22.7 hours per day, followed by senior citizens at 22.5 hours, office workers at 22.0 hours, and stay-at-home parents at 21.8 hours. Although people spend little time in spaces such as outdoors, in transportation, and other indoor microenvironments, higher PM_2.5 concentrations significantly increase the contribution rates. Among all clusters, even though cluster 10 (office workers) and cluster 2 (night security workers) spend relatively little time in other indoor microenvironments, such as Korean barbecue restaurants and pubs, they were included in the scenarios, resulting in higher exposure concentrations and contribution rates.
Conclusions: The analysis of PM_2.5 exposure contribution rates by microenvironment revealed that the highest exposure occurred in the ‘other indoor’ category, with Korean barbecue restaurants showing the highest concentration levels among them. Based on the PM_2.5 exposure contribution rates in the microenvironments, this study suggests priority locations and population groups for targeted management.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: The increase in population density and human activities due to urbanization and industrialization has led to the release of environmental pollutants through various pathways. These include air, water, and soil and result in environmental contamination.
Objectives: This study aimed to conduct exposure and risk assessments for five non-carcinogenic and three carcinogenic heavy metals in indoor dust and sought to propose dust exposure limits for children and adults.
Methods: The study collected and analyzed indoor dust from 20 households in Myeodo-dong, Yeosu, between June 28 and 30, 2023. The exposure scenario for indoor dust was assessed for children and adults, calculating inhalation, dermal, and ingestion exposures, followed by a risk assessment categorized into non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic substances. Exposure limits for heavy metals in indoor dust were determined by calculating concentrations where the hazard index (HI) for non-carcinogenic substances remains below 1 and the total cancer risk (TCR) for carcinogenic substances stays below 1×10^–6.
Results: The highest concentration of heavy metals in indoor dust was found for Zn, with a maximum value of 4912.01 μg/g, while Cd had the lowest concentration at 0.001 μg/g. There were strong positive correlations observed between Cu-Ni (0.590), Mn-Ni (0.706), Co-Zn (0.601), Co-Pb (0.930), Co-Cr (0.961), Zn-Pb (0.728), Zn-Ni (0.611), Zn-Cr (0.709), and Pb-Cr (0.982) (p<0.01). The assessment revealed no significant health risks for the five non-carcinogenic metals, as the HI remained below 1. However, two of the carcinogenic metals (Cd, Ni) exceeded the recommended exposure limits (TCR>1×10^–6). The exposure limits for carcinogenic substances were found to be relatively lower compared to those for non-carcinogenic substances, and children had lower exposure limits than adults.
Conclusions: This study focused on Myeodo-dong in Yeosu, a region vulnerable to environmental pollution, assessing the potential health risks and proposing exposure standards for eight heavy metals found in indoor dust. The results showed no significant health risk for the five non-carcinogenic metals (HI<1), while three of the two carcinogenic metals (Cd, Ni) exceeded safe exposure limits (TCR>1×10^–6).

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) facilities in South Korea are facing challenges in maintaining their efficiency due to aging. Over 50% of these facilities have been in operation for more than 15 years, resulting in a decline in performance and an increase in pollutant emissions, both of which are impacting air quality and public health.
Objectives: The objective of this study is to evaluate the optimal major refurbishment cycles for MSWI facilities and assess the appropriate timing for technical diagnostics. The goal is to maintain operational efficiency, minimize pollutant emissions, and ensure compliance with environmental standards.
Methods: This study analyzed operational data from 2003 to 2022, focusing on facilities with a capacity of over 30 tons/day. Cost comparisons between major refurbishments and new installations were also performed using 2022 price data.
Results: The results showed that, compared to new installations, refurbishments can save approximately 28% in costs while improving performance and reducing emissions. Facilities operating beyond 15 years showed significant declines in efficiency, highlighting the need for timely refurbishment.
Conclusions: Refurbishing MSWI facilities every 15 years is both economically and environmentally beneficial. This strategy ensures that the facilities remain efficient and comply with environmental standards while protecting public health.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants. Wastes burned in solid waste incinerators may contain flame retardants such as PBDEs. Therefore, it is important to study the PBDE exposure of residents in areas around solid waste incinerators.
Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the serum PBDE concentration of residents living in an area around a solid waste incinerator and evaluate the factors that could affect PBDE exposure.
Methods: The study areas included an exposure area around a solid waste incinerator and a control area (8.6 km away from the exposure area). Participants were 196 women in their 40s, 50s, and 60s, with 98 from each area. The survey investigated participants’ age, period of residence, drinking and smoking habits, menopause status, and parity. The medical examination included body mass index (BMI), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and free thyroxine (Free T4). Twenty-two PBDE congeners were analyzed using gas chromatography (Agilent 7890B, Agilent, USA) and mass spectrometry (Xevo TQ-XS, Waters, USA). Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare the significant differences in serum PBDE concentrations by the characteristics of the participants. Multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate the factors affecting PBDE exposure and the effect of serum PBDE concentration on TSH levels in serum (SAS 9.4).
Results: There was a statistically significant difference in serum PBDE concentration by area, age, smoking habits, and menopause status. In the multiple regression analysis result, only the residential area was associated with the serum PBDE concentration. The serum TSH concentration was not associated with serum PBDE concentrations.
Conclusions: The serum PBDE concentration of residents in the area around the solid waste incinerator was significantly higher than that of those in the control area. Based on this result it was assessed that the serum PBDE concentration of residents around the solid waste incinerator were affected by the incinerator.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: There are many published studies on the association between urinary concentration of 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (3-HPMA), a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome. However, inconsistent results have been reported. Additionally, there are currently no studies that have been conducted on Koreans.
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA, a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome.
Methods: We analyzed data from 1,559 Korean adults aged 19 and older who participated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2020 to 2021. The criteria for metabolic syndrome were based on the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III, and the concentration of urinary 3-HPMA was divided into quartiles. The least squares means of the components of metabolic syndrome were calculated based on the concentration of 3-HPMA, and logistic regression analysis was performed to provide odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).
Results: The median concentration of 3-HPMA in the participants’ urine was 420.02 (IQR: 690.51~257.30) μg/mL, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 37.8%. In the comparison of quartiles, an increase in 3-HPMA concentration was associated with a higher prevalence of components of metabolic syndrome (OR: 3.05, 95% CI: 2.02~4.62). However, after adjusting for all covariates, no significant difference was found between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA and the components of metabolic syndrome (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 0.74~2.54).
Conclusions: We did not find a significant association between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA, a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome.

Full Text PDF Cite Share

Background: Environmental health indicators are regarded as an important tool for assessing and monitoring environmental health policies. Some countries, including the United States and in Europe, have developed and utilized the indicators.
Objectives: The main purpose of this study was to develop environmental health indicators in Gyeonggi-do for identifying specific regional environmental problems and environmental vulnerability and enhancing usefulness.
Methods: A database of environmental health indicators was established by previous research, with indicators classified based on the DPSEEA (driving forces–pressures–state–exposure–effects–actions) model. The environmental health indicators reflect characteristics of environmental health in Gyeonggi-do for usefulness in linking with policies and reviewed plans for management.
Results: The six principal components (outdoor/indoor air quality, climate changes, chemicals, water quality, noise, soil) and eighty-six indicators were extracted from the database of environmental health indicators. In addition, the environmental health indicators for Gyeonggi-do were verified for linkage in policies and reviewed plans for management.
Conclusions: The environmental health indicators developed for Gyeonggi-do are a useful tool to identify current environmental health issues in Gyeonggi-do and develop regional policies to prevent environmental exposures and detect new risk factors.