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Background: People spend 80~90% of their day indoors, with only 10~20% of their time spent outdoors. Evaluating exposure accurately requires assessments based on an individual’s time-activity pattern.
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to evaluate the exposure and contribution rates of PM_2.5 by microenvironment, identify related exposure factors, and suggest management measures and priorities.
Methods: This study analyzed the time-activity patterns of 3,984 weekday respondents in Seoul using data from the 2014 Time-Use Survey by Statistics Korea. The respondents were clustered, and occupational groups were estimated by conducting a frequency analysis of sociodemographic factors. Location data was collected at 10-minute intervals, followed by exposure scenario construction and active simulations. When calculating the exposure and contribution rates of PM_2.5, the Korean exposure factors handbook was used to account for inhalation rates.
Results: Most of the indoor microenvironments where people spend their time are residential. Students spend the most time indoors at 22.7 hours per day, followed by senior citizens at 22.5 hours, office workers at 22.0 hours, and stay-at-home parents at 21.8 hours. Although people spend little time in spaces such as outdoors, in transportation, and other indoor microenvironments, higher PM_2.5 concentrations significantly increase the contribution rates. Among all clusters, even though cluster 10 (office workers) and cluster 2 (night security workers) spend relatively little time in other indoor microenvironments, such as Korean barbecue restaurants and pubs, they were included in the scenarios, resulting in higher exposure concentrations and contribution rates.
Conclusions: The analysis of PM_2.5 exposure contribution rates by microenvironment revealed that the highest exposure occurred in the ‘other indoor’ category, with Korean barbecue restaurants showing the highest concentration levels among them. Based on the PM_2.5 exposure contribution rates in the microenvironments, this study suggests priority locations and population groups for targeted management.

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Background: The increase in population density and human activities due to urbanization and industrialization has led to the release of environmental pollutants through various pathways. These include air, water, and soil and result in environmental contamination.
Objectives: This study aimed to conduct exposure and risk assessments for five non-carcinogenic and three carcinogenic heavy metals in indoor dust and sought to propose dust exposure limits for children and adults.
Methods: The study collected and analyzed indoor dust from 20 households in Myeodo-dong, Yeosu, between June 28 and 30, 2023. The exposure scenario for indoor dust was assessed for children and adults, calculating inhalation, dermal, and ingestion exposures, followed by a risk assessment categorized into non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic substances. Exposure limits for heavy metals in indoor dust were determined by calculating concentrations where the hazard index (HI) for non-carcinogenic substances remains below 1 and the total cancer risk (TCR) for carcinogenic substances stays below 1×10^–6.
Results: The highest concentration of heavy metals in indoor dust was found for Zn, with a maximum value of 4912.01 μg/g, while Cd had the lowest concentration at 0.001 μg/g. There were strong positive correlations observed between Cu-Ni (0.590), Mn-Ni (0.706), Co-Zn (0.601), Co-Pb (0.930), Co-Cr (0.961), Zn-Pb (0.728), Zn-Ni (0.611), Zn-Cr (0.709), and Pb-Cr (0.982) (p<0.01). The assessment revealed no significant health risks for the five non-carcinogenic metals, as the HI remained below 1. However, two of the carcinogenic metals (Cd, Ni) exceeded the recommended exposure limits (TCR>1×10^–6). The exposure limits for carcinogenic substances were found to be relatively lower compared to those for non-carcinogenic substances, and children had lower exposure limits than adults.
Conclusions: This study focused on Myeodo-dong in Yeosu, a region vulnerable to environmental pollution, assessing the potential health risks and proposing exposure standards for eight heavy metals found in indoor dust. The results showed no significant health risk for the five non-carcinogenic metals (HI<1), while three of the two carcinogenic metals (Cd, Ni) exceeded safe exposure limits (TCR>1×10^–6).

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Background: Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) facilities in South Korea are facing challenges in maintaining their efficiency due to aging. Over 50% of these facilities have been in operation for more than 15 years, resulting in a decline in performance and an increase in pollutant emissions, both of which are impacting air quality and public health.
Objectives: The objective of this study is to evaluate the optimal major refurbishment cycles for MSWI facilities and assess the appropriate timing for technical diagnostics. The goal is to maintain operational efficiency, minimize pollutant emissions, and ensure compliance with environmental standards.
Methods: This study analyzed operational data from 2003 to 2022, focusing on facilities with a capacity of over 30 tons/day. Cost comparisons between major refurbishments and new installations were also performed using 2022 price data.
Results: The results showed that, compared to new installations, refurbishments can save approximately 28% in costs while improving performance and reducing emissions. Facilities operating beyond 15 years showed significant declines in efficiency, highlighting the need for timely refurbishment.
Conclusions: Refurbishing MSWI facilities every 15 years is both economically and environmentally beneficial. This strategy ensures that the facilities remain efficient and comply with environmental standards while protecting public health.

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Background: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants. Wastes burned in solid waste incinerators may contain flame retardants such as PBDEs. Therefore, it is important to study the PBDE exposure of residents in areas around solid waste incinerators.
Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the serum PBDE concentration of residents living in an area around a solid waste incinerator and evaluate the factors that could affect PBDE exposure.
Methods: The study areas included an exposure area around a solid waste incinerator and a control area (8.6 km away from the exposure area). Participants were 196 women in their 40s, 50s, and 60s, with 98 from each area. The survey investigated participants’ age, period of residence, drinking and smoking habits, menopause status, and parity. The medical examination included body mass index (BMI), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and free thyroxine (Free T4). Twenty-two PBDE congeners were analyzed using gas chromatography (Agilent 7890B, Agilent, USA) and mass spectrometry (Xevo TQ-XS, Waters, USA). Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare the significant differences in serum PBDE concentrations by the characteristics of the participants. Multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate the factors affecting PBDE exposure and the effect of serum PBDE concentration on TSH levels in serum (SAS 9.4).
Results: There was a statistically significant difference in serum PBDE concentration by area, age, smoking habits, and menopause status. In the multiple regression analysis result, only the residential area was associated with the serum PBDE concentration. The serum TSH concentration was not associated with serum PBDE concentrations.
Conclusions: The serum PBDE concentration of residents in the area around the solid waste incinerator was significantly higher than that of those in the control area. Based on this result it was assessed that the serum PBDE concentration of residents around the solid waste incinerator were affected by the incinerator.

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Background: There are many published studies on the association between urinary concentration of 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid (3-HPMA), a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome. However, inconsistent results have been reported. Additionally, there are currently no studies that have been conducted on Koreans.
Objectives: The purpose of this study is to investigate the association between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA, a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome.
Methods: We analyzed data from 1,559 Korean adults aged 19 and older who participated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2020 to 2021. The criteria for metabolic syndrome were based on the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III, and the concentration of urinary 3-HPMA was divided into quartiles. The least squares means of the components of metabolic syndrome were calculated based on the concentration of 3-HPMA, and logistic regression analysis was performed to provide odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).
Results: The median concentration of 3-HPMA in the participants’ urine was 420.02 (IQR: 690.51~257.30) μg/mL, and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 37.8%. In the comparison of quartiles, an increase in 3-HPMA concentration was associated with a higher prevalence of components of metabolic syndrome (OR: 3.05, 95% CI: 2.02~4.62). However, after adjusting for all covariates, no significant difference was found between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA and the components of metabolic syndrome (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 0.74~2.54).
Conclusions: We did not find a significant association between the urinary concentration of 3-HPMA, a metabolite of acrolein, and metabolic syndrome.

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Background: Environmental health indicators are regarded as an important tool for assessing and monitoring environmental health policies. Some countries, including the United States and in Europe, have developed and utilized the indicators.
Objectives: The main purpose of this study was to develop environmental health indicators in Gyeonggi-do for identifying specific regional environmental problems and environmental vulnerability and enhancing usefulness.
Methods: A database of environmental health indicators was established by previous research, with indicators classified based on the DPSEEA (driving forces–pressures–state–exposure–effects–actions) model. The environmental health indicators reflect characteristics of environmental health in Gyeonggi-do for usefulness in linking with policies and reviewed plans for management.
Results: The six principal components (outdoor/indoor air quality, climate changes, chemicals, water quality, noise, soil) and eighty-six indicators were extracted from the database of environmental health indicators. In addition, the environmental health indicators for Gyeonggi-do were verified for linkage in policies and reviewed plans for management.
Conclusions: The environmental health indicators developed for Gyeonggi-do are a useful tool to identify current environmental health issues in Gyeonggi-do and develop regional policies to prevent environmental exposures and detect new risk factors.

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The linear no-threshold (LNT) model is an assumption that explains the dose-response relationship for health risks, allowing for linear extrapolation from high doses to low doses without a threshold. The selection of an appropriate model for low-dose risk evaluation is a critical component in the risk assessment process for hazardous agents. This paper reviews the LNT model in light of epidemiological evidence from major international consortia studying ionizing radiation. From a scientific perspective, substantial evidence supporting the LNT model has been observed in epidemiological studies of low-dose ionizing radiation exposure, although some findings suggest non-linear dose relationships for certain cancer sites and variations across populations. From a practical standpoint, the LNT remains the most useful model for radiation protection purposes, with no alternative dose-response relationship proving more appropriate. It is important to note that the LNT model does not directly reflect the magnitude of risk at the population level, and this distinction should be clearly communicated to the public. While applying the LNT model as the principal basis for radiation protection, continuous research into various dose-response relationships is crucial for advancing our understanding.

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Background: Human health and environment exposure assessments of chemicals are essential part for REACH and BPR as well as K-REACH and K-BPR. Several useful exposure assessment tools have been developed and updated to become extensively used during more than fifteen years of chemical registrations under REACH and their updates are still going on.
Objectives: Evolution of regulatory tools for environment, workers and consumers exposure assessments under REACH is investigated focusing on why and how tools have been developed and updated for the future regulatory tools in Korea.
Methods: REACH regulatory tools including EUSES, ECETOC TRA and CHESAR as well as built-in models SimpleTreat and SimpleBox were chosen with other frequently used Tier 1 and 2 tools. Available resources such as homepage information, background documents, related scientific reports, relevant journal publications, up-to-date lists of new version publications, release notes and user guides were reviewed extensively and summarized using easy-readable Tables and Figures.
Results: SimpleTreat and SimpleBox are built-in models both for EUSES and ECETOC TRA (Environment). ECHA’s CHESAR contains ECETOC TRA (Workers) and ECETOC TRA (Consumers) as well as EUSES and ECETOC TRA (Environment) for environment exposure assessment while results of Tier 2 Stoffenmanager and ConsExpoWeb can be imported. Evolution of CHESAR from version 1 (2010) to 3.8 (2023) has focused on the compatibility of frequent updates of IUCLID, importing functionality, editability, updated use maps, harmonised conditions of use as well as updates of the built-in tools evolved according to scientific development, refinements of the tool, increased conservatism and user-friendliness. CHESAR Platform 1.0 will soon be published to serve both for REACH and BPR.
Conclusions: Updates of the tools can be successfully continued by transparency of the tools, participation of industry sectors for tool refinements and tool developers’/authorities’ encouragements of partners/users to jointly innovate tools through scientific researches, tool validations and user feedback.

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Background: Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) and ozone (O₃) poses potential health risks. The Indoor-to-Outdoor ratio (I/O ratio) is a valuable tool for understanding indoor air quality and identifying potential indoor sources.
Objectives: The objective of this study was to determine I/O ratios of PM_2.5 and O₃ by different microenvironments and seasons in Korea.
Methods: From December 2021 to November 2023, indoor concentrations of PM_2.5 and O₃ were monitored every hour in 13 microenvironments (residential indoor, office, school, restaurant, pub, café, study café, private educational institute, PC room, billiard room, screen golf center, supermarket, and shopping mall) in Korea. Hourly outdoor concentrations of PM_2.5 and O₃ were obtained from local air quality monitoring stations, provided by airkorea.or.kr. The hourly I/O ratio was calculated by the indoor and outdoor concentrations.
Results: At the pub, billiard room, and PC room, the median PM_2.5 I/O ratio exceeded 1 in all seasons, except in spring at the PC room (0.9), suggesting indoor smoking as a potential cause. The median PM_2.5 I/O ratio at the restaurant exceeded 1 in winter, autumn, and summer, except for spring (0.9), indicating significant PM_2.5 emission sources in the restaurant. The median O₃ I/O ratio was below 0.5 in all seasons and microenvironments.
Conclusions: This study provided useful data on relationships between indoor and outdoor pollution in various microenvironments by seasons. These I/O ratios could be applied for more accurate exposure assessment to protect health of human.

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Background: During the coronavirus pandemic, masks played a critical role in preventing respiratory infections. While the performance of masks such as KF-certified masks and N95 masks was evaluated and managed by the authorities, the performance of common masks was not.
Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the performance of uncertified masks in four Asian countries against certification standards (Korean KF80, KF94, and US N95).
Methods: Thirty uncertified mask products from Indonesia, 20 from South Korea, 26 from Taiwan, and 30 from Thailand were purchased to perform performance evaluations. The uncertified masks included disposable dental masks, cloth masks, and children’s masks. Filtration efficiency and inhalation airflow resistance tests were conducted according to Korean KF80, KF94, and US N95 protocols.
Results: None of the 106 identified masks complied with the KF94 standard. A few complied with the KF80 standard: four from Indonesia, four from South Korea, 13 from Taiwan, and 16 from Thailand. Some of the masks met the N95 standard: one from Indonesia, three from South Korea, two from Taiwan, and one from Thailand.
Conclusions: Since many uncertified masks did not comply with performance standards, wearing them might not have provided sufficient protection. Performance of uncertified masks could provide critical information for next pandemic management.

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Background: One of the major causes of pathogenic E. coli is the feces of infected livestock, and the management of the livestock environment is necessary to prevent pathogenic E. coli .
Objectives: The prevalence of pathogenic E. coli was identified from livestock environments, and the molecular characteristics and antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolated pathogenic E. coli strains were analyzed.
Methods: In 2022 and 2023, nine points of livestock houses at sites in Chungcheongnam-do Province were selected, and 100 cow feces or soil samples around the livestock houses were collected once per month. Pathogenic E. coli was isolated by selective culture and identified using multiplex PCR. Antibiotic resistance was tested on the isolated strains by using VITEK-2, and candidate strains were selected to perform 16s rRNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.
Results: A total of 100 samples were tested, and 60 pathogenic E. coli strains were isolated. Of these, 45 and 15 isolates were determined to be single and hybrid pathogenic E. coli , respectively. Among the 15 hybrid pathogenic E. coli strains, eight, five, and two strains were respectively identified as EHEC/ETEC, EHEC/EPEC, and EHEC/ETEC/EPEC hybrids. All 45 isolates showed resistance to at least one antibiotic, and they were susceptible to cefotaxime, amikacin, nalidixic acid, and ciprofloxacin. The highest resistance was against cefalotin, tetracyclin, and ampicillin (20.0%~58.3%). The 16s rRNA sequences of candidate isolates revealed nucleotide sequence identities of 99.1% to 100%.
Conclusions: In order to manage pathogenic E. coli from the One Health animal environment perspective, the characteristics of the occurrence of pathogenic E. coli from the livestock environment and molecular biology and antibiotic resistance to isolated strains were analyzed. In order to prevent and manage the occurrence of pathogenic E. coli , these monitoring studies must be continuously conducted.

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Background: In order to evaluate the national effort to improve air quality through the Act on Air Quality Management Regions, an investigation of the current status of air quality in respective regions and the health impact of air pollution should be undertaken.
Objectives: This study is a preliminary study on the status of PM_2.5 in the central region of South Korea and its health effects. It can be applied to the evaluation of the effectiveness of the Act on Air Quality Management Regions.
Methods: Time series variation of PM_2.5 concentrations in the air quality management region (hereafter referred to as AQMR) and in the non-AQMR area in the central region of South Korea were created. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated based on the survey results of whether the residents of Jeollabuk-do were feeling anxiety caused by air pollution by sex, region, and regional characteristics. Relative risk (RR) values of lung cancer deaths in each city in the AQMR for the central region of South Korea were calculated.
Results: During the period from Dec. 2018 to Dec. 2021, the average concentration of PM_2.5 was higher in the AQMR at 26.0 μg/m³ compared to 19.5 μg/m³ in the non-AQMR. The odds ratio (OR) calculated using data from the Jeonbuk Research Institute (2020) suggested that women were more uncomfortable or anxious about their lives due to air pollutants than were men. The OR evaluation results also showed that in terms of PM_2.5 sensitivity, residents in the non-AQMR were relatively more sensitive than those in the AQMR. The relative risk (RR) was calculated to evaluate the relationship between health hazards (PM_2.5) and diseases (lung cancer). As a result, for super-aged people over 80 years old, compared to the non-AQMR (Muju-gun and Jangsu-gun), the residents in the AQMR (Jeonju, Gunsan, and Iksan) have about twice the relative risk of lung cancer.
Conclusions: It is necessary to make efforts to improve residents’ health and extend their healthy lives through efforts to reduce air pollutants such as PM_2.5 in areas specially selected as an AQMR.

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Background: Based on rapid industrial development, environmental pollution has emerged as a social problem and exposure to environmental diseases is increasing. The number of patients suffering environmental diseases in Daejeon Metropolitan City is also steadily increasing, and the prevalence of atopic dermatitis there is the highest in the country.
Objectives: In order to minimize exposure to harmful factors for the prevention and management of environmental diseases, an environmental disease management system suitable for the environmental characteristics of each region is needed. Basic preliminary research should be conducted to identify environmental hazards in Daejeon Metropolitan City and establish a management system.
Methods: Among the households (about 50 people) participating in the 2022 Indoor Environment Remote Measurement (IoT) program, households (children aged 5 or older and adults) with insufficient results for indoor air quality measurement and symptoms related to environmental diseases were selected. The subjects were tested for living conditions, blood tests, biomarker analysis (immunoglobulin E, Eosinophil count, histamine) and multiple allergy antigen tests (MAST, 93 types).
Results: Participants were 53.7% female and 46.3% male, and the average age showed an even age distribution. IgE and eosinophil count were positively correlated, and significant results were found for atopic dermatitis and IgE (p<0.05). Typical risk factors observed in the survey was the amount of indoor ventilation, chemical exposure, heredity, house dust mites, fungi, and food.
Conclusions: The purpose of this study was to help establish a regional management system for environmental diseases, research and diagnosis of environmental diseases. This study is meaningful in that it is a study with customized consulting suitable for the environment of Daejeon Metropolitan City. If the limitations are addressed and continuous research is conducted, it will be helpful for the management, diagnosis, and research of environmental diseases.

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Background: The prevalence of allergic rhinitis in South Korean adolescents is increasing. Adolescents in South Korea currently use liquid electronic cigarettes more than heated tobacco products.
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to assess the association between the use of liquid electronic cigarettes and allergic rhinitis diagnoses among South Korean adolescents.
Methods: This study used data from the 17th Korea Youth Risk Behavior Survey in 2021. Out of a total of 59,066 students, data from 18,869 students who had experience with liquid electronic cigarettes were used in the final analyses. Diagnoses of allergic rhinitis by medical doctors were self-reported as outcome variables.
Results: For females, when comparing ‘daily users’ and ‘current users’ with ‘never users’, the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for ‘allergic rhinitis’ were 2.20 (95% confidence interval (CI), 1.00~4.84) and 1.49 (95% CI, 1.07~2.09), respectively. For males, when comparing ‘daily users’ and ‘current users’ with ‘never users’, the adjusted ORs for ‘allergic rhinitis’ were 1.42 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.91~2.22) and 1.41 (95% CI, 1.08~1.84), respectively.
Conclusions: The use of liquid electronic cigarettes was statistically significantly associated with increased odds of allergic rhinitis, especially for females. The results of this study will provide a useful scientific basis for establishing public health policy and using the educational data related to the use of liquid electronic cigarettes in the future.